CircleSTARK

Motivation

There is a trade-off between selecting finite fields that allow for:

1. Efficient Arithmetic Implementations: Smaller prime fields, particularly those of special forms like Mersenne primes, enable faster arithmetic operations on standard hardware architectures.

2. Efficient FFT Support: Fields need to have smooth multiplicative groups with large two-adic subgroups to support efficient FFTs, which are crucial for STARKs' encoding processes.

One of the most efficient fields for arithmetic seem to be Mersenne fields, defined by primes of the form $p = 2^e − 1$. In particular, the prime $p = 2^{31} − 1$ enables very efficient arithmetic on 32-bit architectures. Since $2^{32} = 2 \mod{p}$, a widened product encoded as $2^{32} \cdot x_{hi} + x_{lo}$ is trivially reduced to a much smaller quantity, $2 \cdot x_{hi} + x_{lo}$. However, as $p − 1 = 2 \cdot 3^2 \cdot 7 \cdot 11 \cdot 31 \cdot 151 \cdot 331$, the multiplicative group lacks two-adic subgroups, which are useful for efficient Cooley-Tukey Fast Fourier Transforms (FFTs).

Circle Group

For $p=3\mod{4}$ , a complex extension field $\mathbb{F}_p/(X^2+1)$ can be defined as:

$$\mathbb{C}(\mathbb{F}_p)=\{x + i\cdot y:x,y\in \mathbb{F}_p\}$$

For $p = 1 \mod{4}$, $X^2 + 1=0$ has a solution since by Legendre Symbol: $\frac{-1}{p}=(-1)^{\frac{p-1}{2}}=1$. This means that $-1$ is a quadratic residue and $X^2+1$ can be written as $(X-a)(X+a)$ making $\mathbb{F}_p/(X^2+1)$ not a field.

The unit circle over $\mathbb{F}_p$ is the algebraic set $C(\mathbb{F}_p)=\{(x,y)\in \mathbb{F}_p^2 : x^2 + y^2 = 1\}$, or in complex representation:

$$C(\mathbb{F}_p)=\{z\in \mathbb{C}(\mathbb{F}_p)^\times:z\cdot\bar{z}=1\}$$

where $\bar{z}$ denotes the conjugate $x-iy$ of $z=x+iy$.

Lemma 1 (Unit circle group). Let $\mathbb{F}_p$ be a prime field with $p = 3\mod{4}$. Then the unit circle group $C(\mathbb{F}_p)$ equals the group of $(p + 1)$-th roots of unity in $\mathbb{C}(\mathbb{F}_p)^\times$, and has order $p + 1$.

Proof: Notice that $z^p=(x+iy)^p=x^p+(iy)^p=x + (i^p)y=x-iy=\bar{z}$ so $x^2+ y^2=z\cdot\bar{z}=z^{p+1}$. Therefore, $C(\mathbb{F}_p)=\{z\in C(\mathbb{F}_p)^\times:z^{p+1}=1\}$ which means $C(\mathbb{F}_p)$ is set of all $(p+1)$-th roots of unity. Since $|\mathbb{C}(\mathbb{F}_p)^\times|=p^2-1$ is divisible by $p+1$, the unit circle group must be the unique subgroup of order $p + 1$.

Group Operations

The $p + 1$ points of $C(\mathbb{F}_p)$ form a group with the group operation:

$$(x_0, y_0) \cdot (x_1, y_1) := (x_0 \cdot x_1 − y_0 \cdot y_1, x_0 \cdot y_1 + y_0 \cdot x_1)$$

Notice that this equation resembles the $cos(\alpha + \beta)$ and $sin(\alpha+\beta)$ formulas and is equivalent to rotation over the unit circle.

The group has $(1, 0)$ as its identity element, and for any $P = (P_x, P_y) \in C(\mathbb{F}_p)$, we shall call

$$T_P(x, y) := P \cdot (x, y) = (P_x \cdot x − P_y \cdot y, P_x \cdot y + P_y \cdot x)$$

the translation(rotation) by $P$.

The squaring map with respect to the group operation is the quadratic map

$$\pi(x, y) := (x, y) \cdot (x, y) = (x^2 − y^2, 2 \cdot x \cdot y) = (2 · x^2 − 1, 2 \cdot x \cdot y)$$

and group inverses are given by the degree-one map $J(x, y) := (x, −y)$

Figure 1. Blue points under the square operation (left) and inverse operation (right) result in red points.

So you can think of $\pi$ as doubling the angle it forms with the $x$-axis and $J$ as a reflection by the $x$-axis.

Twin-coset and Standard Position Coset

First, Figure 2 shows how the subgroups would look like in the circle group.

Figure 2. Subgroups of size 4, 2, 1 (left to right)

Taking a coset of a subgroup means that each point in the subgroup will be rotated by the same amount.

Definition Let $G_{n-1}$ be a cyclic subgroup of $C(\mathbb{F}_p)$ of size $|G_{n-1}=2^{n-1}|$ for $n\geq1$. Any disjoint union $D=Q\cdot G_{n-1}\cup Q^{-1}\cdot G_{n-1}$ with $Q\cdot G_{n-1}\cap Q^{-1}\cdot G_{n-1}=\varnothing$ is called twin-coset of size $N=2^n$.

Remark Twin-coset maps to itself under inverse, since

$$J(D)=J(Q\cdot G_{n-1})\cup J(Q^{-1}\cdot G_{n-1})=Q^{-1}\cdot G_{n-1}\cup Q\cdot G_{n-1}$$

Figure 3. Twin cosets of subgroups 4,2,1 (left to right). $Q\cdot G_{n-1}$ is blue and $Q^{-1}\cdot G_{n-1}$ is red. If we take the union, it is a twin coset.

Definition In the exceptional case that a twin-coset $D$ of subgroup $G_{n-1}$ is again a coset of the subgroup $G_n$, we call $D$ a standard position coset. Lemma 3 If $D$ is a twin-coset of size $2^n, n\geq2$ then its image $\pi(D)$ is a twin-coset of size $2^{n-1}$. In addition, if $D$ is a standard position coset, so is $\pi(D)$.

Figure 4. Notice that they are twin-cosets of subgroup 4, 2, 1 (left to right), but are also a coset of subgroup size 8, 4, 2 respectively.

Lemma 3 from the paper. If $D$ is a twin-coset of size $2^n, n\geq2$ then its image $\pi(D)$ is a twin-coset of size $2^{n-1}$. In addition, if $D$ is a standard position coset, so is $\pi(D)$.

Proof: $\pi(D)=\pi(Q\cdot G_{n-1}\cup Q^{-1}\cdot G_{n-1})=\pi(Q)\cdot G_{n-2}\cup\pi(Q^{-1})G_{n-2}$ and if $D=Q\cdot G_{n}$ is a standard position coset, then $\pi(Q\cdot G_{n})=\pi(Q)\cdot G_{n-1}$, which means $\pi(D)$ is also a standard position coset.

Space of Polynomials

Definition Let $F$ be an extension field of $\mathbb{F}_p$. Over the circle curve, for any even integer $n\geq0$ we define $\mathcal{L}_N(F)$ as the space of all bi-variate polynomials with coefficients in $F$, and of total degree at most $N/2$,

$$\mathcal{L}_N(F)=\{p(X,Y)\in F[X,Y]/(X^2 + Y^2 -1) : deg\ p \leq N/2 \}$$

For a circle STARK the bi-variate polynomials from $\mathcal{L}_N(F)$ are what low-degree extensions are for classical univariate proofs. The crucial properties of $\mathcal{L}_N(F)$ are:

1. rotation invariance, which is needed for the next-neighbour relation and efficient encoding

2. good separability, leading to maximum distance separable codes.

Vanishing Polynomial

Definition Let $D$ be a subset of $C(\mathbb{F}_p)$ of even size $N$, where $2\leq N < p + 1$. We call any non-zero polynomial from $\mathcal{L}_N=\mathcal{L}_N(\mathbb{F}_p)$, which evaluates to zero over $D$ a vanishing polynomial of the set $D$. Decomposing $D$ into pairs of points ${P_k, Q_k},1\leq k\leq N/2$ and taking the product of linear functions going through these pairs,

$$v_D(x,y)=\prod_k{((x-P_{kx})\cdot(Q_{ky}-P_{ky})-(y-P_{ky})(Q_{kx}-P_{kx}))}$$

$v_D(x,y)=\prod_k{((x-P_{kx})\cdot(Q_{ky}-P_{ky})-(y-P_{ky})(Q_{kx}-P_{kx}))}$shows that vanishing polynomials do exist.

Given a twin-coset $D=Q\cdot G_{n-1}\cup Q^{-1}\cdot G_{n-1}$, using Lemma 3, we can see $\pi^{n-1}(D)$ will result in a twin-coset of size 2. In other words, it is in the form of $\pi^{n-1}(D)=\{(x_D, y_D),(x_D,-y_D)\}$ for some $x_D, y_D\in D$. We therefore may take

$$v_D(x,y):=v_n(x,y)-x_D$$

with $v_n(x,y):=\pi_x\circ\pi^{n-1}(x,y)$ where $\pi_x$ is the projection onto the x-axis.

And when $D$ is a standard position coset, its image $\pi^{n-1}(D)$ is again a standard position coset and thus $x_D=0$ (see Figure 4, rightmost image). In this case $v_D(x,y):=v_n(x,y)$ and $v_D$ can be evaluated by only $O(n)$ field operations (2 addition and 1 multiplication in each step).

$$v_1(x)=\pi_x\circ \pi^0(x,y)=\pi_x\circ(x,y)=x \\ v_2(x)=2x^2 - 1\newline v_3(x)=2(2x^2-1)^2-1=8x^4-8x^2+1\\ \dots$$

Definition The circle code with values in $F$ and evaluation domain $D$, is linear code with code words from the space:

$$\mathcal{C}_N(F,D)=\{f(P)|_{P\in D}: f\in\mathcal{L}_N(F)\}$$

Circle FFT

Definition 1 from the paper. (CFFT-friendly prime). Any prime $p$ for which $(p + 1)$ is divisible by $2^{n+1}$ for sufficiently large $n \geq 1$, will be called CFFT-friendly, and any such $n$ is a supported order, and $N = 2^n$ a supported domain size.

Definition 4 from the paper. For any integer $j$ from the interval $0 \leq j \leq 2^n − 1$, let $(j_0, . . . , j_{n−1}) \in\{0, 1\}^n$ denote its bit representation. The FFT-basis of order $n$ is the family $\mathcal{B}_n$ of polynomials:

$$b^{(n)}_j (x, y) := y^{j_0} · v_1(x)^{j_1} · . . . v^{j_{n−1}}_{n−1}(x),\ 0 ≤ j ≤ 2n − 1$$

Consider bi-variate polynomials modulo $x^2 + y^2 -1$: $F[X,Y]/(x^2 + y^2 - 1)$. Here $y^2\equiv 1-x^2$ so we can replace all $y^2$ by $1-x^2$ and hence, all polynomials in $F[X,Y]/(x^2 + y^2 - 1)$ can be represented with polynomials with $deg(y) \leq 1$.

This means $f(X,Y)\in F[X,Y]/(x^2 + y^2 - 1)$ can be represented as canonical form:

$$f(X,Y)=f_0(X) + Yf_1(X)$$

And we can calculate $f_0(X)$ and $f_1(X)$ by:

$$f_{0}(X) = \frac{f(X,Y) + f(X,-Y)}{2}\\f_{1}(X)=\frac{f(X,Y)-f(X,-Y)}{2Y}$$

($J$-folding) First step $\phi_J$ aka $\pi_x$:

$$f_0(x) = \frac{f(x,y) + f(x,-y)}{2}\\f_1(x)=\frac{f(x,y)-f(x,-y)}{2y}\\f_0(x) + y\cdot f_1(x)=f(x,y)$$

More intuitively, $f_0$ is taking the average of $f$ and $f\circ J$ while $f_1$ is the difference between them divided by $2y$.

Figure 5. Given the evaluations (left), the result of $J$-folding is shown. Notice that $f_0$ and $f_1$ can be actually parametrized by only the x-axis.

($\pi$-folding) Next step:

$$f_{k_00}(2\cdot x^2 - 1)=\frac{f_{k_0}(x) + f_{k_0}(-x)}{2}\\f_{k_01}(2\cdot x^2 - 1)=\frac{f_{k_0}(x) - f_{k_0}(-x)}{2x}\\f_{k_00}(2x^2 - 1) + xf_{k_01}(2x^2-1)=f_{k_0}(x)$$

This step is repeated recursively until we get constant functions of the form:

$$f_{k_0k_1k_2\dots k_{n-1}}$$

These make up a constant $c_k = f_{k_0,...,k_{n−1}} \in F$, for each $k$ in the interval $0 \leq k \leq 2^{n} −1$, where $k = k_0 + k_1 2+. . .+k_{n−1}2^{n−1}$.

Figure 6. Result of $\pi$-folding on $f_0$. We do the same for $f_1$ to get $f_{10}$ and $f_{11}$

In Figure 6, $f_0(x)$ suddenly has only 4 points. This is because $f_0(x)$ actually has only 4 evaluation points $(-A, -B, B, A)$ and is only parametrized by $x$. It is visualized on a circle for easier group operation visualization. To elaborate:

1. $f_{00}(C)$ is the average of $f_0(A)$ and $f_0(-A)$.

2. $f_{00}(-C)$ is the average of $f_0(B)$ and $f_0(-B)$.

But where did $C$ come from? It denotes $2A^2-1$, while $-C$ is $2B^2-1$ since $A^2 + B^2=1$ because they are from a standard position coset.

Theorem 2 Let $p$ be a CFFT-friendly prime supporting the order $n\geq 1$, take $D \subset C(\mathbb{F}_p)$ a twin-coset of size $|D| = 2^n$. Given $f \in F^D$ a function over $D$ with values in an extension field $F$ of $\mathbb{F}_p$ , the above described algorithm outputs the coefficients $c_k \in F$, $0 \leq k \leq 2^n-1$, with respect to the FFT basis $\mathcal{B_n}$, so that $\sum^{2^n−1}{k=0}c_k \cdot b_k$ evaluates to $f$ over $D$.

Low degree test over the Circle

Protocol 1 (Circle FRI). Let $D$ be a standard position coset of size $|D| = 2^{B+n}$, where $B \geq 1$ and $n \geq 1$, and let $\mathcal{C} = \mathcal{C}_N(F, D)$ be the circle code with rate $ho = \frac{N+1}{|D|}$, where $N = 2^n$. For given proximity parameter $\theta \in (0, 1 − \sqrt{ρ})$, the interactive oracle proof of a function $f \in F^D$ being $\theta$-close to the circle code $\mathcal{C}$, consists of a commit phase and a subsequent query phase, which are as follows.

COMMIT phase:

1. (Decomposition) The prover compute the decomposition of $f\in\mathcal{L}_N(F)$ into $f=f^{(0)} +\lambda\cdot v_n$ with $f^{(0)}\in \mathcal{L}^{(0)}:=\mathcal{L}'_N(F)$ and $\lambda\in F$. It sends $\lambda$ and commitment to $f^{(0)}$ to the verifier.

2. ($J$-folding) For $i = 1$:

   1. The verifier picks uniformly random $\beta_i \in F$ and sends it to the prover.

   2. The prover commits to a function $f^{(i)}\in \mathcal{L}^{(i)}$ (In the case of an honest prover, $f^{(i)} = f^{(i-1)}_{0} + \beta_i f^{(i-1)}_{1}$ where $f^{(i-1)}_0\circ\pi_x=\frac{f^{(i-1)}+f^{(i-1)}\circ J}{2}\\f^{(i-1)}_1\circ\pi_x=\frac{f^{(i-1)}-f^{(i-1)}\circ J}{2y}$

3. ($\pi$-folding) For $i = 2$ to $r$:

   1. The verifier picks uniformly random $\beta_i \in F$ and sends it to the prover.

   2. The prover commits to a function $f^{(i)} : L^{(i)} \rightarrow F$. (In the case of an honest prover, $f^{(i)} = f^{(i-1)}_{0} + \beta_i f^{(i-1)}_{1}$ where

      $f^{(i-1)}_0\circ\pi=\frac{f^{(i-1)}+f^{(i-1)}\circ T}{2}\\f^{(i-1)}_0\circ\pi=\frac{f^{(i-1)}-f^{(i-1)}\circ T}{2x}$

      where $T(x)=-x$.

4. The prover sends a value $f^{(r)} \in \mathcal{L}^{(r)}$ in plain.

QUERY phase: (executed by the Verifier)

1. Repeat $l$ times where $l$ is the number of times you want to query to achieve target soundness:

   1. Pick $x_0 \in L^{(0)}$ uniformly at random.

   2. ($J$-folding) For $i = 1$:

      1. Query $f$ at $x_0$ and $J(x_0)$. Compute $f^{(0)}(x_0)=f(x_0)-\lambda\cdot v_n(x_0)\\f^{(0)}(J(x_0))=f(J(x_0)) - \lambda\cdot v_n(J(x_0))$

      2. Compute $f^{(0)}_0(\pi_x(x_0)) = \frac{f^{(0)}(x_0) + f^{(0)}(J(x_0))}{2}\\f^{(0)}_1(\pi_x(x_0)) = \frac{f^{(0)}(x_0) + f^{(0)}(J(x_0))}{2y}$

      3. Query $f^{(1)}$ at $x_1=\pi_x(x_0)$ and check if $f^{(1)}(\pi_x(x_0)) = f^{(0)}_{0}(\pi_x(x_0)) + \beta_1 f^{(0)}_{1}(\pi_x(x_0))$

   3. ($\pi$-folding) For $i = 2\dots r$:

      1. Calculate $x_i=\pi(x_{i-1})=2x^2_{i-1}-1$

      2. Query $f^{(i-1)}$ at $-x_{i-1}$. (the value at $x_{i-1}$ is queried in the previous round)

      3. Compute $f^{(i-1)}_0(x_i) = \frac{f^{(i-1)}(x_{i-1}) + f^{(i-1)}(-x_{i-1})}{2}\\f^{(i-1)}_1(x_i) = \frac{f^{(i-1)}(x_{i-1}) - f^{(i-1)}(-x_{i-1}))}{2x_{i-1}}$

      4. Query $f^{(i)}$ at $x_i$ and check if $f^{(i)}(x_i) = f^{(i-1)}_{0}(x_i) + \beta_i f^{(i-1)}_{1}(x_i)$

2. ACCEPT if all checks passed. REJECT otherwise

Batch Circle FRI

Protocol 2 (batch Circle FRI). Under the same assumptions as Protocol 1, the interactive oracle proof for a batch of functions $f_1,\dots,f_L \in F^D$ having correlated $(1 − \theta)$-agreement to a codeword from $C_N(F, D)$, is as follows. In the first step, given a random challenge $\lambda_b \leftarrow F$ from the verifier, the prover computes the values of the linear combination:

$$f=\sum^L_{i=1}\lambda_b^{k-1}\cdot f_i$$

over $D$. Now, both prover and verifier run Protocol 1 on $f$ , with its query phase extended by a check of the batching at each of the queries.

CircleSTARK

In circle STARK, the trace domain is the standard position coset $H\subset C(\mathbb{F}_p)$ of a cyclic and proper subgroup $G = G_n$ of the circle curve $C(\mathbb{F}_p)$, of size $N = 2^n$, with $n \geq 1$, and the trace is organised column-wise $t_1, \dots, t_w \in \mathbb{F}_p^N$, each placed over the domain $H$ in the usual manner, using the group translation $T$ by a generator of $G$ for the timeline. The trace columns are interpolated by polynomials

$$p_1,\dots,p_w\in\mathbb{F}_p[x,y]/(x^2+y^2 -1)$$

of total degree at most $N/2$, meaning that $p_i\in\mathcal{L}_N(\mathbb{F}_p)$ (actually, they are from the FFT-space $\mathcal{L}'_N(\mathbb{F}_p))$, and these polynomials are subject to set of constraints, say

$$P_i(s_i,p_1,\dots,p_w,p_1\circ T,\dots,p_w\circ T)=0$$

for $i=1,\dots,C$, holding over the entire domain $H$, where $s_i\in \mathcal{L}_N(\mathbb{F}_p)$ is a predefined selector polynomial.

Each constraint is a polynomial

$$P_i\in\mathbb{F}_p[S,X_1,\dots,X_w,Y_1,\dots,Y_w]$$

$P_i\in\mathbb{F}_p[S,X_1,\dots,X_w,Y_1,\dots,Y_w]$of total degree at most the maximum number of twin-coset of size $N$, $\mathsf{deg} P_i\leq\frac{p^2+1}{N} - 1$ and the degree in the selector variable $S$ is at most $\mathsf{deg}_S P_i \leq 1$.

Definition. The evaluation domain is a standard position coset $D\subseteq C(\mathbb{F}_p)$, of at least double the size of trace domain $H$. The polynomials in the circle STARK will be generally committed by their values over this domain.

Lemma 2 from the paper. Let $p$ be a CFFT-friendly prime supporting the order $m \geq 1$, and $G_k$ denote the subgroup of order $2^k$ for $k \leq m$. Then any subset of $D\subseteq C(\mathbb{F}_p) / G_m$ which is invariant under and $J$ can be decomposed into twin-cosets of size $N = 2^n$, for any $n \leq m$. In particular for a standard position coset $D$ of size $M = 2^m$,

$$D = Q \cdot G_m = \bigcup^{M/N-1}_{k=0}(Q^{4k+1}\cdot G_{n−1} \cup Q^{−4k−1}\cdot G_{n−1})$$

where $Q$ is an element from $C(\mathbb{F}_p)$ of order $2^{m+1}$.

IOP for AIR

Now, once we have all these, the interactive oracle proof for the satisfiability of the AIR can be constructed as follows:

In the first round, the prover computes the values of its trace polynomials $p_1,\dots,p_w\in\mathcal{L}_N(\mathbb{F}_p)$ over the evaluation domain $D$ using its decomposition into twin-cosets and shares their oracles denoted by

$$[p_1],\dots,[p_w]$$

with their verifier.

In the second round, the verifier sends random challenge $\beta \leftarrow F$, drawn uniformly from a suitably large extension field $F$ of $\mathbb{F}_p$, which is used to reduce the constraint polynomials into a single one:

$$\sum^C_{i=1}\beta^{i-1}\cdot P_i(s_i,p_1,\dots,p_w,p_1\circ T,\dots,p_w\circ T)=0$$

which should hold over trace domain $H$. To prove this, the vanishing polynomial over $H$, $v_H$, is computed so the composite constraint polynomial can now be written as:

$$\sum^C_{i=1}\beta^{i-1}\cdot P_i(s_i,p_1,\dots,p_w,p_1\circ T,\dots,p_w\circ T)=q\cdot v_H$$

To keep with the degree bound imposed by the size of $H$, the quotient $q\in\mathcal{L}_{(d-1)N}(F)$ needs to be split into polynomials $q_1,\dots,q_{d-1}\in\mathcal{L}_N(F)$:

$$q=\lambda\cdot v_{\bar H} + \sum^{d-1}_{k=1}\frac{v_{\bar H}}{v_{H_k}}\cdot q_k$$

Recall that $L_{(d-1)N}$ has $(d-1)N + 1$ dimension. On the other hand, the quotient $q\in\mathcal{L}_{(d-1)N}(F)$ is computed by value from those of $f_1,\dots,f_w$ over a union of twin-cosets $H_k$ of size $N$. Thus the union $\bar{H}=\bigcup^{d-1}_{k=1}H_k$ is one point too small to uniquely determine a polynomial from $\mathcal{L}_{(d-1)N}$. In our decomposition, this missing point is characterized by an additional scalar multiple of the vanishing polynomial of $\bar{H}$.

Then, the prover sets up the oracles

$$[q_1],\dots,[q_{d-1}]$$

for their values over the evaluation domain $D$, and sends them, together with $\lambda$, to the verifier.

Having all oracles in place, the next step is DEEP ALI, which reduces satisfiability of the constraints to a low-degree test on single-point quotients. (In lose terms, this step turns low-degree test into a polynomial commitment scheme.)

In this step, the verifier responds with a random point $\gamma\rightarrow C(F)\setminus (D\cup H)$. In return, the prover opens the values $v_{i,0}=p_i(\gamma), v_{i,1}=p_i(T(\gamma))$ for each $i=1,\dots,w$ as well as $v_1,\dots,v_{d-1}$ of $q_1,\dots,q_{d-1}$ at $\gamma$. Eventually, both prover and verifier engage in a low-degree test for the real and imaginary parts of the DEEP quotients:

$$\mathsf{Re/Im}(\frac{p_i-v_{i,0}}{v_\gamma}),\mathsf{Re/Im}(\frac{p_i-v_{i,1}}{v_{T(\gamma)}})\\\mathsf{Re/Im}(\frac{q_i-v_i}{v_\gamma})$$

Conclusion

The initial implementation of CircleFFT demonstrated a performance improvement by a factor of 1.4 in a single-threaded setup. Building on this foundation, Starknet’s next-generation prover, Stwo (“STARK Two”), is designed to enhance and eventually replace the current prover, Stone (“STARK One”).

Figure 7. Initial benchmark result of CFFT

Written by Batzorig Zorigoo from A41